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The transition towards decarbonized energy systems requires the expansion of renewable and flexibility technologies in power sectors. Many powerful tools exist to find optimal capacity expansion. In a stylized comparison of six models, we evaluate the capacity expansion results of basic power sector technologies. The technologies under investigation include base- and peak load power plants, electricity storage, and transmission. We define four highly simplified and harmonized test cases that focus on the expansion of only one or two specific technologies to isolate their effects on model results. We find that deviating assumptions on limited availability factors of technologies cause technology-specific deviations between optimal capacity expansion in models in almost all test cases. Fixed energy-to-power ratios of storage can entirely change optimal expansion outcomes, especially shifting the ratio between short- and long-duration storage. Fixed initial and final-period storage levels can affect the seasonal use of long-duration storage. Models with a pre-ordered dispatch structure substantially deviate from linear optimization models, as missing foresight and limited flexibility can lead to higher capacity investments. A simplified net transfer capacity approach underestimates the need for grid infrastructure compared to a more detailed direct current load flow approach. We further find deviations in model results of optimal storage and transmission capacity expansion between regions, and link them to variable renewable energy generation and demand characteristics. We expect that the general effects identified in our stylized setting also hold in more detailed model applications, although they may be less visible there.
capacity expansion: A comparative study 30.04.2022 Energie & Klimaschutz Bücher

Hedychium gardnerianum is a major invader of native Hawaiian forests and suspected of smothering native understory species and preventing native tree seedlings’ establishment. In this study, effects on species composition in six vegetation layers of a Hawaiian rainforest were examined (Tree Layer 1, Tree Layer 2, Fern-Shrub Layer, Herb Layer, Bryophyte–Herb Layer, and Bryophyte Layer). Three different area types were compared, which included (i) Natural area types with no influence of non-native species, (ii) Ginger area types with a Hedychium gardnerianum dominated herb layer, and (iii) Cleared area types, which were treated with herbicide to remove alien species in 1998. Species composition sampled in 2004 of the upper three vegetation layers (Tree Layer 1, Tree Layer 2, and Fern-Shrub Layer) differed little. The lower three vegetation layers (Herb Layer, Bryophyte–Herb Layer, and Bryophyte Layer) showed highly significant differences. Species composition in the Ginger area types showed notable abundances of non-native Psidium cattleianum, but low coverage of native species. In the area freed of Hedychium gardnerianum (Cleared area types), native species are regenerating, although it still reveals signs of disturbance. If this area is managed to prevent reinvasion, then it is likely to regain a natural forest structure.
rainforest on the island of Hawai’i 01.04.2010 Energie & Klimaschutz Bücher

Germany’s third largest state, Baden Württemberg, was the first to mandate the installation of renewable heating technologies in 2008. Owners of a heating system need to employ a minimum share of renewable energy of 15% of the heat demand when the heating system is replaced. Instead of employing a renewable heating system, the building owner can also opt for efficiency measures, including insulation of the building. A part of the obligation can be fulfilled by carrying out an energy audit based on an individual building roadmap. For the first time, the effects of the Renewable Heating Act Baden-Württemberg have been evaluated in detail, based on statistical analyses of the available verifications, on market observations, interviews with 1000 clients, 150 heating installers, 250 chimney sweepers, 50 building companies, clients of energy audits and various stakeholder workshops and interviews, leading to a model calculation of estimated savings of the law. The paper will present the empirical findings and investigate the various mechanisms of the renewable and efficiency requirement, including direct and indirect effects, trigger effects, windfall effects and wait-and-see attitudes. Overall, the law provides positive impetus for additional installations of renewable energies, more energy efficiency and advice. This effect results from the sum of different effects: through the explicit requirements, it provides an additional direct incentive to expand renewable energies and substitute measures. Indirectly, the law strengthens the involvement with renewable energies both in the consultation process with heating engineers and planners/architects and in the purchase decision of customers. Additional energy consulting is also encouraged. However, the positive market figures compared to the federal trend are not completely causally attributable to the EWärmeG.The paper will conclude with a set of improvements of the Act itself and the surrounding policy landscape.
building requirements 01.07.2019 Publikationen Energie & Klimaschutz Bücher

In order to achieve a high renewable share in the electricity system, a significant expansion of cross-border exchange capacities is planned. Historically, the actual expansion of interconnector capacities has significantly lagged behind the planned expansion. This study examines the impact that such continued delays would have when compared to a strong interconnector expansion in an ambitious energy transition scenario. For this purpose, scenarios for the years 2030, 2040, and 2050 are examined using the electricity market model PowerFlex EU. The analysis reveals that both CO2 emissions and variable costs of electricity generation increase if interconnector expansion is delayed. This effect is most significant in the scenario year 2050, where lower connectivity leads roughly to a doubling of both CO2 emissions and variable costs of electricity generation. This increase results from a lower level of European electricity trading, a curtailment of electricity from a renewable energy source (RES-E), and a corresponding higher level of conventional electricity generation. Most notably, in Southern and Central Europe, less interconnection leads to higher use of natural gas power plants since less renewable electricity from Northern Europe can be integrated into the European grid.
High RES-E European Electricity System 12.08.2019 Energie & Klimaschutz Bücher

Energy sufficiency is one of the three energy sustainability strategies, next to energy efficiency and renewable energies. We analyse to what extent European governments follow this strategy, by conducting a systematic document analysis of all available European National Energy and Climate Plans (NECPs) and Long-Term Strategies (LTSs). We collect and categorise a total of 230 sufficiency-related policy measures, finding large differences between countries. We find most sufficiency policies in the transport sector, when classifying also modal shift policies to change the service quality of transport as sufficiency policies. Types of sufficiency policy instruments vary considerably from sector to sector, for instance the focus on financial incentives and fiscal instruments in the mobility sector, information in the building sector, and financial incentive/tax instruments in cross-sectoral application. Regulatory instruments currently play a minor role for sufficiency policy in the national energy and climate plans of EU member states. Similar to energy efficiency in recent decades, sufficiency still largely referred to as micro-level individual behaviour change or necessary exogenous trends that will need to take place. It is not treated yet as a genuine field of policy action to provide the necessary framework for enabling societal change. Published in: Energy Policy, Volume 157, October 2021, 112483
and climate plans 01.10.2021 Publikationen Energie & Klimaschutz Bücher

We present results of two model based scenario analysis focussing on the future German power sector which is characterized by a rising share of renewable energies and an associated higher demand for flexibility. Case study 1 is based on a general comparison between a decentrally and a centrally orientated electricity system. The research question of case study 2 is whether flexibility should be centrally balanced by a national market-based dispatch or dispatched in a decentralized manner within regional balancing areas. The combined results of these two case studies offer the possibility to show the differences between a decentralized and a centralized electricity system regarding the dispatch of generation, storage and flexibility options as well as resulting effects on variable costs, CO2 emissions, grid usage and RE integration. Decentralization as control strategy leads to higher variable generation costs due to more expensive generation and less efficient flexibility options that come into the market, while the majority of demand and supply still needs a transmission grid for balancing. Koch M. et al. (2017) Dispatch of Flexibility Options, Grid Infrastructure and Integration of Renewable Energies Within a Decentralized Electricity System. In: Bertsch V., Fichtner W., Heuveline V., Leibfried T. (eds) Advances in Energy System Optimization. Trends in Mathematics. Birkhäuser, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-51795-7_5
Publikationen Energiewende und Klimapolitik Energie & Klimaschutz Bücher

This article compares the drivers and barriers of two sustainability transformations in Germany: the energy transformation (“Energiewende”) andt he attempted transformation towards organic agriculture which has, so far, been less successful. It is based on two case studies rooted in transformation research. While there is rapidly growing literature on energy, there are far fewer analyses of agricultural transformations. Moreover, single case studies dominate. The cross-case comparison presented in this article is a step towards filling this gap. Particularly in their initial stages, the two transformation processes shared similarities: both systems had been coming under pressure due to environmental crises, grassroots movements and niche developments of sustainable alternatives. However, changes to the regulatory system framework made investments in renewable energy more attractive than in organic agriculture, where the profitability of the transformation is still reduced by significant subsidies for conventional agriculture. Moreover, the energy transformation has benefitted from technological improvements and falling costs, an early coalition of supporters, including business actors, and more recently from abroader societal and political consensus. ©2019 D. A. Heyen, F.Wolff; licensee oekom verlag. This Open Access article is published under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License CCBY4.0 (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0). https://doi.org/10.14512/gaia.28.S1.9 Submitted December 19, 2018; revised version accepted July 12, 2019.
of sustainability transformations 22.08.2019 Umweltrecht & Governance Bücher

Die Diskussion um die Nutzung von Wäldern im Spannungsfeld von Holzproduktion, ihrem Beitrag zum Klimaschutz und der Verpflichtung zum Schutz der Biodiversität von Waldökosystemen wird mit Schärfe geführt. Es werden dabei auch Klimaschutzargumente bemüht, um Anliegen des Biodiversitätsschutzes zu diskreditieren. Manche der angeführten Argumente basieren auf einer fragwürdigen Datenbasis und -interpretation. In der Gemengelage geht es nicht nur um den Umgang mit Forderungen zu mehr Flächenstilllegungen von Wirtschaftswäldern und den Schutz von Naturwäldern in Deutschland, es droht auch der Verlust der letzten großflächigen europäischen temperaten Urwälder, die alle im Karpatenbogen liegen. Ursächliche Faktoren sind die intensive und zunehmende Holznutzung, ein unzureichender politischer Wille und ein zu geringes nationales und europäisches Engagement für den Schutz dieses Weltnaturerbes. Urwälder und Naturwälder sind in den EU-Mitgliedsstaaten auf weniger als 3 % der Gesamtwaldfläche erhalten geblieben; hunderttausende Hektar europäischer Urwälder gingen allein in den vergangenen zehn Jahren verloren. In diesem zweiteiligen Aufsatz diskutieren wir Argumente zu den Themenkomplexen (1) Biodiversität und Forstwirtschaft, (2) CO2-Speicher- und -Senkenleistung genutzter und ungenutzter Wälder und (3) Klimaschutzwirkung der energetischen Holznutzung vor dem Hintergrund aktueller klimapolitischer Entscheidungen der EU und der Bundesregierung. Der vorliegende erste Teil befasst sich mit dem Vorkommen von Ur- und Naturwäldern in Europa und widerlegt die These, diese könnten keinen wichtigen Beitrag zum Biodiversitätsschutz leisten. Außerdem wird der Beitrag von Urwäldern, Naturwäldern und Wirtschaftswäldern mit dem Klimaschutz vergleichend bewertet. Teil 2: Das Narrativ von der Klimaneutralität der Ressource Holz finden Sie hier >> Click here for the English version >>
Klimaschutz – Teil 1: 31.12.2021 Publikationen Energie & Klimaschutz Bücher

Given the challenges of future land use policies addressing sustainable natural resources management and socioeconomic aspects, the inter- and transdisciplinary GLOBALANDS (Global Land Use and Sustainability) project identified relevant international policy options, their synergies and possible implementation, and initiated and supported respective processes. GLOBALANDS identified also “windows of opportunity” to strengthen sustainable land use through international policies based on an extensive screening of the most important international policies – both governmental and non-governmental approaches – with relevant impacts on land use. Key processes which could strengthen global governance towards sustainable land use are:The proposed UN Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) in which land is covered partially. Mainstreaming of sustainable land use in existing UN and international governance systems such as UN conventions to allow for more coherence Better safeguarding of sustainable land use in project-level financing of bi- and multilateral devel-opment agencies and bodies. The private sector can play an increasing role in the governance of sustainable land use, but this may require e.g., a certification system. GLOBALANDS developed a new (complementary) approach for land-related indicators which integrates environmental and social aspects through the formulation of sustainable land use practices for different actors, and regions. The application of such indicators is possible within the process of regionally or nationally implementing the SDGs.A final outcome of the GLOBALANDS project are policy recommendation for Germany policy to foster sustainable land use in the international governance system. Also, key open (research) questions were identified.
Sustainable Land Use Standard (GLOBALANDS) 03.10.2015 Umweltrecht & Governance Bücher

On the pathway to climate neutrality, EU member states are obliged to submit national energy and climate plans (NECPs) with planned policies and measures for decarbonization until 2030 and long-term strategies (LTSs) for further decarbonization until 2050. We analysed the 27 NECPs and 15 LTSs submitted by October 2020 using an inter-rater method. This paper focuses on energy sufficiency policies and measures in the transport sector. We found a total of 236 sufficiency policy measures with more than half of them (53 %) in the transport / mobility sector. Additionally, we found 41 measures that address two or more sectors (cross-sectoral measures). From the explicit sufficiency measures within the transport sector, 82 % aim at modal shift. A reduction of transport volumes is much less addressed. Countries plan to use mainly fiscal and economic instruments. Those are in many cases investments in infrastructure of low-carbon transport modes and taxation instruments. Plans on decarbonisation measures are also frequently mentioned. The majority of cross-sectoral measures are carbon taxes or tax reforms, also economic instruments. On the one hand it is encouraging that Member States strongly emphasize the transport sector in their NECPs and LTSs – at least quantitatively and concerning sufficiency measures – because this sector has been the worst-performing in climate mitigation so far. On the other hand, the measures described seem not sufficient to reach ambitious climate targets, and we doubt that the presented set of policy instruments will get the transport sector on track to mitigate greenhouse gas emissions in the necessary extent.
long-term strategies 11.10.2021 Publikationen Energie & Klimaschutz Bücher